What is the application of technology to solve problems affecting living organisms called

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Bones and Applied Aspects of Biotechnology. 2016 October 23 : ane–21.

An Introduction to Biotechnology

Varsha Gupta

⁵Institute of Biosciences and Biotechnology, Chhatrapati Shahu Ji Maharaj University, Kanpur, Upwards India

Manjistha Sengupta

⁶George Washington University, Washington DC, USA

Jaya Prakash

^viiOrthopaedics Unit, Community Health Centre, Kanpur, UP Bharat

Baishnab Charan Tripathy

^viiiSchool of Life sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Abstract

Biotechnology is multidisciplinary field which has major impact on our lives. The technology is known since years which involves working with cells or jail cell-derived molecules for various applications. It has wide range of uses and is termed "technology of hope" which bear on homo health, well being of other life forms and our environment. It has revolutionized diagnostics and therapeutics; however, the major challenges to the human being beings have been threats posed by deadly virus infections equally avian flu, Chikungunya, Ebola, Influenza A, SARS, West Nile, and the latest Zika virus. Personalized medicine is increasingly recognized in healthcare system. In this affiliate, the readers would understand the applications of biotechnology in man wellness care system. It has likewise impacted the surroundings which is loaded by toxic compounds due to human industrialization and urbanization. Bioremediation process utilizes use of natural or recombinant organisms for the cleanup of ecology toxic pollutants. The evolution of insect and pest resistant crops and herbicide tolerant crops has greatly reduced the environmental load of toxic insecticides and pesticides. The increase in crop productivity for solving world nutrient and feed problem is addressed in agricultural biotechnology. The technological advancements have focused on evolution of alternate, renewable, and sustainable energy sources for production of biofuels. Marine biotechnology explores the products which tin be obtained from aquatic organisms. As with every research surface area, the field of biotechnology is associated with many upstanding problems and unseen fears. These are of import in defining laws governing the feasibility and approval for the bear of particular enquiry.

Keywords: Stem Cell Inquiry, Itaconic Acid, Levulinic Acid, Salmon Calcitonin, Agricultural Biotechnology

Introduction

The term " biotechnology" was coined by a Hungarian engineer Karl Ereky, in 1919, to refer to the science and methods that permit products to be produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms. Biotechnology is a diverse field which involves either working with living cells or using molecules derived from them for applications oriented toward human welfare using varied types of tools and technologies. Information technology is an amalgamation of biological science with engineering whereby living organisms or cells or parts are used for product of products and services. The main subfields of biotechnology are medical (red) biotechnology, agricultural (green) biotechnology, industrial (white) biotechnology, marine (blue) biotechnology, food biotechnology, and environmental biotechnology (Fig. ane.ane.). In this chapter the readers volition sympathise the potential applications of biotechnology in several fields like production of medicines; diagnostics; therapeutics similar monoclonal antibodies, stem cells, and cistron therapy; agricultural biotechnology; pollution command ( bioremediation); industrial and marine biotechnology; and biomaterials, as well equally the upstanding and prophylactic issues associated with some of the products.

Major applications of biotechnology in unlike areas and some of their important products

The biotechnology came into being centuries ago when plants and animals began to be selectively bred and microorganisms were used to make beer, wine, cheese, and breadstuff. However, the field gradually evolved, and presently it is the use or manipulation of living organisms to produce beneficiary substances which may have medical, agricultural, and/or industrial utilization. Conventional biotechnology is referred to every bit the technique that makes utilise of living organism for specific purposes as staff of life/cheese making, whereas modern biotechnology deals with the technique that makes use of cellular molecules like Deoxyribonucleic acid, monoclonal antibodies, biologics, etc. Before nosotros go into technical advances of DNA and thus recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid engineering, permit us have the bones understanding near Deoxyribonucleic acid and its function.

The foundation of biotechnology was laid downwardly after the discovery of structure of DNA in the early 1950s. The hereditary material is dna (Deoxyribonucleic acid) which contains all the data that dictates each and every pace of an private'due south life. The DNA consists of deoxyribose sugar, phosphate, and four nitrogenous bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine). The base and sugar collectively grade nucleoside, while base, sugar, and phosphate form nucleotide (Fig. i.2). These are bundled in detail orientation on DNA called social club or sequence and contain information to express them in the form of protein. DNA has double helical structure, with two strands being complimentary and antiparallel to each other, in which A on one strand base pairs with T and One thousand base pairs with C with two and three bonds, respectively. Dna is the long simply compact molecule which is nicely packaged in our nucleus. The DNA is capable of making more copies similar itself with the information present in it, as gild or sequence of bases. This is called Dna replication. When the cell divides into two, the DNA besides replicates and divides equally into 2. The procedure of Deoxyribonucleic acid replication is shown in Fig. i.iii, highlighting important steps.

The double helical structure of Deoxyribonucleic acid where both strands are running in opposite direction. Elongation of the chain occurs due to germination of phosphodiester bond between phosphate at five′ and hydroxyl group of saccharide at 3′ of the adjacent sugar of the nucleotide in 5–3′ direction. The carbohydrate is fastened to the base. Bases are of four kinds: adenine (A), guanine (Chiliad) (purines), thymine (T), and cytosine (C) (pyrimidines). Adenine base of operations pairs with 2 hydrogen bonds with thymine on the opposite antiparallel strand and guanine base pairs with three hydrogen bonds with cytosine present on the opposite antiparallel strand

The process of DNA replication. The DNA is densely packed and packaged in the chromosomes. The procedure requires the action of several factors and enzymes. DNA helicase unwinds the double helix. Topoisomerase relaxes DNA from its super coiled nature. Unmarried-strand binding proteins demark to single-stranded open Deoxyribonucleic acid and foreclose its reannealing and maintains strand separation. DNA polymerase is an enzyme which builds a new gratis DNA strand and has proofreading activity. DNA clench is a poly peptide which prevents dissociation of DNA polymerase. Primase provides a short RNA sequence for DNA polymerase to brainstorm synthesis. DNA ligase reanneals and joins the Okazaki fragments of the lagging strand. DNA duplication follows semiconservative replication, where each strand serves as template which leads to the production of two gratuitous strands. In the newly formed Deoxyribonucleic acid, one strand is old and the other ane is new (semiconservative replication). DNA polymerase tin extend existing curt Dna or RNA strand which is paired to template strand and is called primer. Primer is required as Deoxyribonucleic acid polymerase cannot start the synthesis directly. DNA polymerase is capable of proofreading, that is, correction of wrongly incorporated nucleotide. One strand is replicated continuously with single primer, and it is called as leading strand. Other strand is discontinuous and requires the add-on of several primers. The extension is done in the form of curt fragments called as Okazaki fragments. The gaps are sealed by DNA ligase. Replication ever occurs in 5′–iii′ direction

Dna contains whole data for the working of the cell. The role of the Deoxyribonucleic acid which has information to dictate the biosynthesis of a polypeptide is called a "gene." The arrangement or society of nucleotides determines the kind of proteins which we produce. Each gene is responsible for coding a functional polypeptide. The genes take the information to make a complimentary copy of mRNA. The information of DNA which makes RNA in turn helps cells to incorporate amino acids according to arrangement of letters for making many kinds of proteins. These messages are transcribed into mRNA in the form of triplet codon, where each codon specifies one detail amino acid. The polypeptide is thus made by adding respective amino acids according to the instructions nowadays on RNA. Therefore, the arrangement of four bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine) dictates the information to add any of the 20 amino acids to make all the proteins in all the living organisms. Few genes need to exist expressed continuously, as their products are required by the cell, and these are known as "constitutive genes." They are responsible for basic housekeeping functions of the cells. Notwithstanding, depending upon the physiological demand and prison cell's requirement at a particular time, some genes are agile and some are inactive, that is, they exercise not code for whatsoever protein. The data independent in the DNA is used to make mRNA in the process of " transcription" (factors shown in Table ane.1). The data of mRNA is used in the process of " translation" for production of poly peptide. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and translation in the cytoplasm of the cell. In translation several initiation factors help in the assembly of mRNA with 40S ribosome and prevent binding of both ribosomal subunits; they likewise associate with cap and poly(A) tail. Several elongation factors play an important role in chain elongation. Though each cell of the torso has the same genetic makeup, only each is specialized to perform unique functions, the activation and expression of genes is different in each prison cell. Thus, ane type of cells tin express some of its genes at once and may not express the same genes some other time. This is called "temporal regulation" of the gene. In the body different cells limited different genes and thus different proteins. For example, liver cell and lymphocyte, would express different genes. This is known as spatial regulation of the factor. Therefore, in the cells of the trunk, the activation of genes is nether spatial regulation (cells present at different locations and different organs produce unlike proteins) and temporal regulation (same cells produce different proteins at dissimilar times). The proteins are formed by the information independent in the DNA and perform a diversity of cellular functions. The proteins may be structural (responsible for jail cell shape and size), or they may be functional similar enzymes, signaling intermediates, regulatory proteins, and defense organization proteins. Still, any kind of genetic defect results in defective protein or alters protein folding which tin compromise the functioning of the body and is responsible for the diseases. Figure 1.4 shows the outline of the process of transcription and translation with important steps.

Tabular array i.1

Factors involved in transcription process

Eukaryotic transcription
Transcription factor (TF)	Functions
TFIID	TATA binding	It recognizes
	Protein (TBP)	TATA box
	Subunit
	TBP associated	Regulate DNA
	Factors	Binding past TBP
TFIIB	Recognizes TFIIB recognition elements (BRE); positions RNA polymerase (RNA politician)
TFIIF	Stabilizes RNA politician; attracts TFIIE and TFIIF
TFIIE	Regulates TFIIH
TFIIH	Unwinds DNA at transcription start point; releases RNA polymerase from promoter

It shows the process of transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and requires the usage of three polymerase enzymes. RNApol I for rRNA, pol Ii for mRNA, and pol 3 for both rRNA and tRNA. RNApol Two initiates the process by associating itself with 7 transcription factors, TFIIA, TFIIB, TFIID, TFIIE, TFIIH, and TFIIJ. Afterwards the synthesis, preRNA transcript undergoes processing to grade mRNA by removal of introns past splicing and polyadenylation and capping. Poly peptide synthesis is initiated by germination of ribosome and initiator tRNA complex to initiation codon (AUG) of mRNA and involves xi factors. Chain elongation occurs later sequential add-on of amino acids by germination of peptide bonds. Then polypeptide can fold or conjugate itself to other biomolecules and may undergo posttranslational modifications as glycosylation or phosphorylation to perform its biological functions

The biotechnological tools are employed toward modification of the gene for proceeds of part or loss of function of the protein. The technique of removing, adding, or modifying genes in the genome or chromosomes of an organism to bring most the changes in the poly peptide information is chosen genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology (Fig. i.five). DNA recombination made possible the sequencing of the human genome and laid the foundation for the nascent fields of bioinformatics, nanomedicine, and individualized therapy. Multicellular organisms similar cows, goats, sheep, rats, corn, potato, and tobacco plants take been genetically engineered to produce substances medically useful to humans. Genetic engineering has revolutionized medicine, enabling mass production of safe, pure, more effective versions of biochemicals that the man trunk produces naturally [20–22].

The process of recombinant Dna technology. The factor of involvement from human nucleus is isolated and cloned in a plasmid vector. The gene is ligated with the aid of Dna ligase. The vector is transformed into a bacterial host. Afterwards appropriate selections, the factor is amplified when bacteria multiply or the gene tin exist sequenced or the gene can exist expressed to produce protein

The technological advancements have resulted in (i) many biopharmaceuticals and vaccines, (2) new and specific means to diagnose, (iii) increasing the productivity and introduction of quality traits in agricultural crops, (iv) the ways to tackle the pollutants efficiently for sustainable environmental practices, (5) helped the forensic experts by Dna fingerprinting and profiling, (half-dozen) fermentation technology for production of industrially of import products. The listing is very long with tremendous advancements and products which have boosted the economy of biotechnology sector worldwide [xvi]. The biotechnology industry and the products are regulated past various government organizations such every bit the US Food and Drug Assistants (FDA), the Environmental Protection Bureau (EPA), and the United states of america Section of Agriculture (USDA).

Medical Biotechnology

This fieldof biotechnology has many applications and is involved in product of recombinant pharmaceuticals, tissue engineering science products, regenerative medicines such as stem prison cell and gene therapy, and many more biotechnology products for meliorate human life (Fig. 1.6). Biotechnological tools produce purified bio-therapeutic agents on industrial scales. These include both novel agents and agents formerly available but in small quantities. Crude vaccines were used in antiquity in People's republic of china, India, and Persia. For example, vaccination with scabs that independent the smallpox virus was a practise in the East for centuries. In 1798 English language state doctor Edward Jenner demonstrated that inoculation with pus from sores due to infection by a related cowpox virus could prevent smallpox far less dangerously. It marked the starting time of vaccination. Humans have been benefited incalculably from the implementation of vaccination programs.

Various applications of medical biotechnology

Tremendous progress has been fabricated since the early on recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid applied science (RDT) experiments from which the lively—and highly profitable—biotechnology industry emerged. RDT has fomented multiple revolutions in medicine. Safe and improved drugs, accelerated drug discovery, better diagnostic and quick methods for detecting an infection either active or latent, evolution of new and safety vaccines, and completely novel classes of therapeutics and other medical applications are added feathers in its cap. The engineering has revolutionized understanding of diseases every bit diverse as cystic fibrosis and cancer. Pharmaceutical biotechnology being one of the important sectors involves using animals or hybrids of tumor cells or leukocytes or cells ( prokaryotic, mammalian) to produce safer, more efficacious, and cost-effective versions of conventionally produced biopharmaceuticals. The launch of the new biopharmaceutical or drug requires screening and development. Mice were widely used every bit inquiry animals for screening. However, in the wake of animal protection, animal cell culture offers accurate and inexpensive source of cells for drug screening and efficacy testing. Pharmaceutical biotechnology'southward greatest potential lies in gene therapy and stem cell-based therapy. The underlying cause of defect of many inherited diseases is now located and characterized. Gene therapy is the insertion of the functional gene in place of defective gene into cells to prevent, control, or cure disease. Information technology also involves add-on of genes for pro-drug or cytokines to eliminate or suppress the growth of the tumors in cancer handling.

But the progress so far is viewed by many scientists as only a get-go. They believe that, in the not-so-afar future, the refinement of "targeted therapies" should dramatically better drug rubber and efficacy. The development of predictive technologies may pb to a new era in illness prevention, especially in some of the globe's rapidly developing economies. Even so the risks cannot be ignored as new developments and discoveries pose new questions, particularly in areas equally gene therapy, the ethics of stem jail cell inquiry, and the misuse of genomic information.

Many bio-therapeutic agents in clinical use are biotech pharmaceuticals. Insulin was amid the earliest recombinant drugs. Canadian physiologists Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered and isolated insulin in 1921. In that time many patients diagnosed with diabetes died within a few years. In the mid-1960s, several groups reported synthesizing the hormone.

The first "bioengineered" drug, a recombinant course of human insulin, was approved by the United states Food and Drug Assistants (FDA) in 1982. Until then, insulin was obtained from a limited supply of beef or pork pancreas tissue. By inserting the human gene for insulininto bacteria, scientists were able to attain lifesaving insulinproduction in large quantities. In the well-nigh future, patients with diabetes may exist able to inhale insulin, eliminating the need for injections. Inhaled insulinproducts like Exubera® were approved by the USFDA; even so, it was pulled out and other products like Technosphere® insulin (Afrezza®) are nether investigation. They may provide relief from prandial insulin. Afrezza consists of a pre-repast insulinpowder loaded into a cartridge for oral inhalation.

Technosphere technology: The engineering allows administration of therapeutics through pulmonary route which otherwise were required to be given as injections. These formulations take broad spectrum of physicochemical characteristics and are prepared with a various assortment of drugs with protein or small molecule which may be hydrobhobic or hydrophilic or anionic or cationic in nature. The technology can have its applicability not only through pulmonary route but also for other routes of administration including local lung delivery.

The starting time recombinant vaccine, approved in 1986, was produced by cloning a gene fragment from the hepatitis B virus into yeast (Merck's Recombivax HB). The fragment was translated by the yeast'due south genetic machinery into an antigenic protein. This was present on the surface of the virus that stimulates the allowed response. This avoided the demand to excerpt the antigen from the serum of people infected with hepatitis B.

The Food and Drug administration (FDA) approved more biotech drugs in 1997 than in the previous several years combined. The FDA has approved many recombinant drugs for human health conditions. These include AIDS, anemia, cancers (Kaposi's sarcoma, leukemia, and colorectal, kidney, and ovarian cancers), sure circulatory bug, certain hereditary disorders (cystic fibrosis, familial hypercholesterolemia, Gaucher's disease, hemophilia A, severe combined immunodeficiency illness, and Turner'due south syndrome), diabetic foot ulcers, diphtheria, genital warts, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, human growth hormone deficiency, and multiple sclerosis. Today there are more than than 100 recombinant drugs and vaccines. Because of their efficiency, prophylactic, and relatively low price, molecular diagnostic tests and recombinant vaccines may take item relevance for combating long-standing diseases of developing countries, including leishmaniasis (a tropical infection causing fever and lesions) and malaria.

Stem jail cell research is very promising and holds tremendous potential to treat neurodegenerative disorders, spinal cord injuries, and other weather related to organ or tissue loss.

DNA analysis is another powerful technique which compares Deoxyribonucleic acid pattern [14] later performing RFLP and probing it by minisatellite repeat sequence between two or more individuals. Its modification, Dna profiling (process of matching the DNA profiles for STS markers in two or more individuals; see affiliate 18), which utilizes multilocus PCR analysis of DNA of suspect and victims, is very powerful and is useful in criminal investigation, paternity disputes, and so many other legal problems. The analysis is very useful in criminal investigations and involves evaluation of Deoxyribonucleic acid from samples of the hair, trunk fluids, or peel at a criminal offense scene and comparison of these with those obtained from the suspects.

Improved Diagnostic and Therapeutic Capabilities

The sequencing of the human genome in 2003, has given scientists an incredibly rich "parts list" with which to better understand why and how disease happens. It has given added power to cistron expression profiling, a method of monitoring expression of thousands of genes simultaneously on a glass slide called a microarray. This technique tin predict the aggressiveness of cancer.

The evolution of monoclonal antibodies in 1975 led to a medical revolution. The body unremarkably produces a wide range of antibodies—the immune arrangement proteins—that defend our body and eliminate microorganisms and other strange invaders. By fusing antibody-producing cells with myeloma cells, scientists were able to generate antibodies that would, like "magic bullets," demark with specific targets including unique markers, called antigenic determinants ( epitopes), on the surfaces of inflammatory cells. When tagged with radioisotopes or other dissimilarity agents, monoclonal antibodies tin help in detecting the location of cancer cells, thereby improving the precision of surgery and radiation therapy and showing—inside 48 h—whether a tumor is responding to chemotherapy.

The polymerase chain reaction, a method for amplifying tiny bits of DNA first described in the mid-1980s, has been crucial to the development of blood tests that tin can quickly decide exposure to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Genetic testing currently is bachelor for many rare monogenic disorders, such as hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, sickle cell anemia, thalassemia, etc.

Some other rapidly developing field is proteomics, which deals with analysis and identification of proteins. The analysis is done past two-dimensional gel electrophoresis of the sample and so performing mass spectrometric analysis for each individual poly peptide. The technique may exist helpful in detecting the disease-associated poly peptide in the biological sample. They may indicate early signs of disease, even before symptoms appear. Ane such marker is C-reactive poly peptide, an indicator of inflammatory changes in blood vessel walls that presage atherosclerosis.

Nanomedicine is a rapidly moving field. Scientists are developing a wide multifariousness of nanoparticles and nanodevices, scarcely a millionth of an inch in diameter, to improve detection of cancer, boost immune responses, repair damaged tissue, and thwart atherosclerosis. The FDA has approved a paclitaxel albumin-stabilized nanoparticle formulation (Abraxane® for injectable pause, made by Abraxis BioScience) for the treatment of metastatic adenocarcinoma of the pancreas. Nanoparticles are being explored in heart patients in the USA every bit a mode to keep their heart arteries open following angioplasty.

Therapeutic proteins are those, which can replace the patients naturally occurring proteins, when levels of the natural proteins are low or absent due to the disease. High-throughput screening, conducted with sophisticated robotic and figurer technologies, enables scientists to test tens of thousands of modest molecules in a single day for their ability to bind to or modulate the activeness of a "target," such as a receptor for a neurotransmitter in the encephalon. The goal is to improve the speed and accurateness of therapeutic protein or potential drug discovery while lowering the cost and improving the safety of pharmaceuticals that make it to market.

Many of the molecules utilized for detection also have therapeutic potential too, for instance, monoclonal antibodies. The monoclonal antibodies are approved for the treatment of many diseases as cancer, multiple sclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. They are currently beingness tested in patients as potential treatments for asthma, Crohn's illness, and muscular dystrophy. Equally the antibodies may be efficiently targeted against a particular jail cell surface marker, thus they are used to deliver a lethal dose of toxic drug to cancer cells, avoiding collateral harm to nearby normal tissues.

Agronomical Biotechnology

The manhas fabricated tremendous progress in crop improvement in terms of yield; still the ultimate production of crop is less than their total genetic potential. At that place are many reasons like environmental stresses (weather condition equally rain, cold, frost), diseases, pests, and many other factors which reduce the ultimate desired yield affecting ingather productivity. The efforts are going on to design crops which may be grown irrespective of their season or tin exist grown in frost or drought weather condition for maximum utilization of land, which would ultimately touch on ingather productivity [24]. Agricultural biotechnology aims to introduce sustainable agriculturalpractices with best yield potential and minimal agin effects on environment (Fig. 1.7). For case, combating pests was a major challenge. Thus, the cistron from bacterium , the Bt gene, that functions as insect-resistant cistron when inserted into crop plants like cotton, corn, and soybean helps prevent the invasion of pathogen, and the tool is called . This management is helpful in reducing usage of potentially unsafe pesticides on the crop. Not only the minimal or low usage of pesticides is beneficial for the ingather simply too the load of the polluting pesticides on environment is greatly reduced [24].

Various applications of agricultural biotechnology

Resistance to Infectious Agents Through Genetic Engineering

1. Bt crops

   • The cistron comes from the soil bacterium .

   • The gene produces crystal proteins called Cry proteins. More than 100 different variants of the Bt toxins have been identified which have unlike specificity to target insect lepidoptera. For eg., CryIa for collywobbles and CRYIII for beetles.

   • These Cry proteins are toxic to larvae of insects like tobacco budworm, armyworm, and beetles.

   • The Cry proteins exist as an inactive protoxins.

   • These are converted into agile toxin in element of group i pH of the gut upon solubilization when ingested by the insect.

   • After the toxin is activated, it binds to the surface of epithelial cells of midgut and creates pores causing swelling and lysis of cells leading to the death of the insect (larva).

   • The genes (weep genes) encoding this protein are isolated from the bacterium and incorporated into several crop plants like cotton, tomato, corn, rice, and soybean.

   The proteins encoded by the following cry genes control the pest given against them:

   • Cry I Ac and weep Ii Ab command cotton bollworms.

   • Cry I Ab controls corn tapping.

   • Cry III Ab controls Colorado potato beetle.

   • Weep Iii Bb controls corn rootworm.

2. Protection against nematodes

   • A nematode infects tobacco plants and reduces their yield.

   • The specific genes (in the form of cDNA) from the parasite are introduced into the plant using -mediated transformation.

   • The genes are introduced in such a way that both sense/coding RNA and antisense RNA (complimentary to the sense/coding RNA) are produced.

   • Since these two RNAs are complementary, they class a double-stranded RNA (ds RNA).

   • This neutralizes the specific RNA of the nematode, past a process called RNA – interference.

   • Every bit a result, the parasite cannot multiply in the transgenic host, and the transgenic plantis protected from the pest.

These resistant crops outcome in reduced application of pesticides. The yield is loftier without the pathogen infestations and insecticides. This also helps to reduce load of these toxic chemicals in the surround.

The transformation techniques and their applications are being utilized to develop rice, cassava, and tomato, free of viral diseases past "International Laboratory for Tropical Agricultural Biotechnology" (ILTAB). ILTAB in 1995 reported the first transfer of a resistance gene from a wild-blazon species of rice to a susceptible cultivated rice variety. The transferred factor expressed and imparted resistance to crop-destroying bacterium Xanthomonas oryzae. The resistant gene was transferred into susceptible rice varieties that are cultivated on more than 24 meg hectares effectually the world [six].

The recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid engineering reduces the time between the identification of a particular gene to its application for betterment of crops past skipping the labor-intensive and fourth dimension-consuming conventional breeding [three]. For instance, the amending of known factor in plant for the improvement of yield or tolerance to adverse ecology weather condition or resistance to insect in one generation and its inheritance to further generations. Institute prison cell and tissue culture techniques are one of the applications where virus-gratis plants can be grown and multiplied irrespective of their season on large calibration (micropropogation), raising haploids, or embryo rescue. It also opens an opportunity to cross 2 manipulated varieties or two incompatible varieties (protoplast culture) for obtaining best multifariousness for cultivation.

With the help of technology, new, improved, and safe agricultural products may emerge which would exist helpful for maintaining contagion-free environment. Biotechnology has the potential to produce:

• High crop yields [4]

• Crops are engineered to have desirable nutrients and meliorate taste (e.g., tomatoes and other edible crops with increased levels of vitamin C, vitamin E, and/or beta-carotene protect against the take chances of some prevalent chronic diseases and rice with increased iron levels protects against anemia)

• Insect- and disease-resistant plants

• Genetic modification avoids nonselective changes

• Longer shelf life of fruits and vegetables

The potential of biotechnology may contribute to increasing agricultural, food, and feed production, protecting the surroundings, mitigating pollution, sustaining agricultural practices, and improving human and animal wellness. Some agricultural crops as corn and marine organisms can be potential culling for biofuel production. The by-products of the procedure may be candy to produce other chemical feedstocks for various products. It is estimated that the world's chemic and fuel demand could be supplied by such renewable resources in the kickoff one-half of the adjacent century [5].

Nutrient Biotechnology

Food biotechnology is an emerging field, which tin increase the production of food, improving its nutritional content and improving the gustation of the food. The food is safe and beneficial as information technology needs fewer pesticides and insecticides. The engineering science aims to produce foods which have more flavors, comprise more vitamins and minerals, and blot less fat when cooked. Food biotechnology may remove allergens and toxic components from foods, for their better utility [six, 7].

Environmental Biotechnology

Environmental biotechnology grossly deals with maintenanceof environment, which is pollution-free, the water is contagion-free, and the atmosphere is free of toxic gases. Thus, information technology deals with waste matter handling, monitoring of ecology changes, and pollution prevention. Bioremediation in which utilization of higher living organisms (plants: phytoremediation) or certain microbial species for decontamination or conversion of harmful products is washed is the main application of ecology biotechnology. The enzyme bioreactors are also being developed which would pretreat some industrial and food waste components and allow their removal through the sewage system rather than through solid waste product disposal mechanisms. The production of biofuel from waste can solve the fuel crisis (biogas). Microbes may be engineered to produce enzymes required for conversion of plant and vegetable materials into building blocks for biodegradable plastics. In some cases, the by-products of the pollution-fighting microorganisms are themselves useful. For example, marsh gas can exist derived from a form of bacteria that degrades sulfur liquor, a waste product of paper manufacturing. This methane thus obtained is used equally a fuel or in other industrial processes. Insect- and pest-resistant crops have reduced the use and environmental load of insecticides and pesticides. Insect-protected crops permit for less potential exposure of farmers and groundwater to chemical residues while providing farmers with season-long control.

Industrial Biotechnology

The utilizationof biotechnological tools (bioprocessing) for the manufacturing of biotechnology-derived products (fuels, plastics, enzymes, chemicals, and many more than compounds) on industrial scale is industrial biotechnology. The aim is to develop newer industrial manufacturing processes and products, which are economical and amend than preexisting ones with minimal ecology bear upon. In industrial biotechnology, (1) microorganisms are beingness explored for producing cloth goods similar fermentation products equally cheese; (ii) biorefineries where oils, sugars, and biomass may be converted into biofuels, bioplastics, and biopolymers; (3) and value-added chemicals from biomass. The utilization of modern techniques can meliorate the efficiency and reduces the environmental impacts of industrial processes similar textile, newspaper, pulp, and chemical manufacturing. For example, development and usage of biocatalysts, such as enzymes, to synthesize chemicals and development of antibiotics and improve tasting liquors and their usage in food industry have provided safe and effective processing for sustainable productions. Biotechnological tools in the textile manufacture are utilized for the finishing of fabrics and garments. Biotechnology also produces spider silk and biotech-derived cotton that is warmer and stronger and has improved dye uptake and retention, enhanced absorbency, and wrinkle and shrink resistance.

Biofuels may exist derived from photosynthetic organisms, which capture solar energy, transform information technology in other products similar carbohydrates and oils, and store them. Different plants can be used for fuel production:

1. Bioethanol can be obtained from sugar (as sugarcane or sugar beet) or starch (like corn or maize). These are fermented to produce ethanol, a liquid fuel commonly used for transportation.

2. Biodiesel can exist obtained from natural oils from plants like oil palm, soybean, or algae. They can be burned directly in a diesel engine or a furnace, or blended with petroleum, to produce fuels such as biodiesel.

3. Wood and its by-products can exist converted into liquid biofuels, such as methanol or ethanol, or into wood gas. Wood tin can besides be burned every bit solid fuel, like the irewood.

In these kinds of biological reaction, there are many renewable chemicals of economical importance coproduced as side streams of bioenergy and biofuels as levulinic acid, itaconic acid, and sorbitol. These have tremendous economic potential and their fruitful usage would depend upon the collaboration for research and development between the government and the private sector.

Enzyme Product

The enzymeshave big commercial and industrial significance. They accept wide applications in nutrient industry, leather industry, pharmaceuticals, chemicals, detergents, and research. In detergents the alkaline protease, subtilisin (from Bacillus subtilis), was used by Novo Industries, Kingdom of denmark. The production of enzymes is an of import industrial application with world market of approximately 5 billion dollars. The enzymes can be obtained from animals, plants, or microorganisms. The production from microorganisms is preferred as they are easy to maintain in culture with simple media requirements and easy calibration-up. The important enzymes for the industrial applications are in nutrient industry, human application, and research. A few fauna enzymes are as well important as a group of proteolytic enzymes, for case, plasminogen activators, which act on inactive plasminogen and activate information technology to plasmin, which destroys fibrin network of claret clot. Some of the plasminogen activators are urokinase and tissue plasminogen activators (t-PA). Urokinase (from urine) is difficult to obtain in aplenty quantity; thus, t-PA is obtained from cells grown in civilization medium. Streptokinase (bacterial enzyme) is also a plasminogen activator but is nonspecific and immunogenic.

Enzyme technology is likewise being tried where modifications of specific amino acid residue are done for improving the enzyme properties. Ane of the enzymes chymosin (rennin) coagulates milk for cheese manufacturing.

The enzymes tin can exist produced by culturing cells, growing them with advisable substrates in civilization conditions. Afterwards optimum time the enzymes may exist obtained by cell disruption (enzymatic/freeze–thaw/osmotic shock) followed by preparative steps (centrifugation, filtration), purification, and assay. The production is so packaged and ultimately launched in the market.

Afterward their production, they can exist immobilized on large range of materials (agar, cellulose, porous drinking glass, or porous alumina) for subsequent reuse. Some of the important industrial enzymes are α-amylase (used for starch hydrolysis), amyloglucosidase (dextrin hydrolysis), β-galactosidase (lactose hydrolysis), aminoacylase (hydrolysis of acylated 50-amino acids), glucose oxidase (oxidation of glucose), and luciferase (bioluminescence). Some of the medically important enzymes are urokinase and t-PA for blood clot removal and L-asparaginase for removal of L-asparagine essential for tumor growth and thus used for cancer chemotherapy in leukemia.

Exploring Algae for Production of Biofuels

The energyrequirement of present population is increasing and gradually fossil fuels are rapidly depleting. Thus, renewable energy sources similar solar energy and wind-, hydro-, and biomass-based energy are being explored worldwide. Ane of the feedstocks may be microalgae, which are fast-growing, photosynthetic organisms requiring carbon dioxide, some nutrients, and water for its growth. They produce large corporeality of lipids and carbohydrates, which tin exist processed into unlike biofuels and commercially important coproducts. The production of biofuels using algal biomass is advantageous as they (ane) can grow throughout the yr and thus their productivity is college than other oil seed crops, (ii) have high tolerance to loftier carbon dioxide content, (three) apply less water, (4) practise not require herbicides or pesticides with high growth potential (waste water can be utilized for algal cultivation), (v) can sustain harsh atmospheric weather, and (6) do not interfere with productivity of conventional crops equally they practise not require agricultural land. The product of various biofuels from algae is schematically represented in Fig. i.eight.

Different biofuel productions by using microalgae. The algae use sunlight, CO2, water, and some nutrients

Algae can serve as potential source for biofuel production; still, biomass product is low. The production has sure limitations, as cultivation toll is loftier with requirement of high energy [1].

Marine or Aquatic Biotechnology

Marine or aquatic biotechnology also referred to as "blueish biotechnology" deals with exploring and utilizing the marine resource of the world. Aquatic or marine life has been intriguing and a source of livelihood for many since years. As major part of earth is acquired past h2o, thus well-nigh 75–eighty % types of life forms exist in oceans and aquatic systems. It studies the wide diverseness institute in the structure and physiology of marine organisms. They are unique in their own ways and lack their equivalent on land. These organisms have been explored and utilized for numerous applications equally searching new treatment for cancer or exploring other marine resources, because of which the field is gradually gaining momentum and economic opportunities [19]. The global economical benefits are estimated to be very high. The field aims to:

1. Fulfill the increasing food supply needs

2. Identify and isolate of import compounds which may benefit health of humans

3. Manipulate the existing traits in sea animals for their improvement

4. Protect marine ecosystem and gain knowledge near the geochemical processes occurring in oceans

Some of the major applications are discussed:

• Aquaculture: Aquaculture refers to the growth of aquatic organisms in culture condition for commercial purposes. These animals may be shellfish, finfish, and many others. Mariculture refers to the cultivation of marine animals. Their main applications are in food, food ingredients, pharmaceuticals, and fuels, the products are in loftier demand, and various industries are in aquaculture business, for example, crawfish farming (Louisiana), catfish manufacture (Alabama and Mississippi Delta), and trout farming (Idaho and Westward Virginia).

• Biotechnology discoveries and products.

  • Transgenic species of salmon with growth hormone gene has accelerated growth of salmons.

  • Molt-inhibiting (MIH) from bluish crabs leads to soft-shelled crab.

  • : Anovel poly peptide antifreeze protein (AFP) was identified. AFPs were isolated from Northern cod (bottom-domicile fish) living at the Eastern Canada coast and teleosts living in extremely cold weather of Antarctica. AFPs have been isolated from Osmerus mordax (smelt), Clupea harengus (herring), Pleuronectes americanus (wintertime flounder), and many others. Due to antifreeze properties (lowering the minimal freezing temperature by two–three °C), the factor has potential for raising plants which are cold tolerant (eastward.g., tomatoes).

  • Light-green fluorescent protein: A much pop dark-green fluorescent poly peptide (GFP) was obtained from jellyfish Aequorea victoria. It can fluoresce and thus glow in the dark. Many marine microorganisms take bioluminescent capability. GFP is widely used equally reporter cistron in experiments related to gene cloning, expression, and transgenics. A transgenic strain of zebra fish in the name of GloFish was created by Yorktown Industries, Texas, in 2004. This was with ruddy fluorescent protein gene obtained from ocean anemones, and it was the first genetically modified pet beast in the market place.

    • Medicinal applications: For osteoporosis, salmon calcitonin (calcitonin is thyroid hormone promoting calcium uptake and bone calcification) with 20 times college bioactivity is available as injection and nasal spray.

    • Hydroxyapatite (HA): Obtained from coral reefs and is an important component of bone and cartilage matrix. Its implants are prepared by Interpore Internationals which may be used for filling gaps in fractured bones.

    • Byssal fibers: Are protein-rich superadhesive which accept rubberband backdrop obtained from mussels (Mytilus edulis). Their isolation would non exist very economical, but they can have broad applications in surgical sutures, artificial tendons, and ligament grafts.

      Many anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticancerous compounds have been identified from sea organisms which tin can have tremendous potential for man health.

      Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is the nearly toxic poisonous substance (10,000 times more lethal than cyanide) produced by Japanese pufferfish or blowfish (Fugu rubripes). TTX is existence used to study and understand its event on sodium channels which tin can aid guide the development of drugs with anesthetic and analgesic properties.

      Other Products

      1. Taq polymerase from Thermus aquaticus which is used in PCR reactions and obtained from hot leap Archaea.

      2. Collagenase (protease) obtained from Vibrio is used in tissue technology and culturing.

Transgenic Animals and Plants

In the early1980s, inserting DNA from humans into mice and other animals became possible. The animals and plants which accept foreign factor in each of their cells are referred to as transgenic organisms and the inserted gene every bit transgene. Expression of homo genes in these transgenic animals can be useful in studies, as models for the evolution of diabetes, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimer's disease. They also can generate large quantities of potentially therapeutic human proteins. Transgenic plants as well offer many economic, safe, and practical solutions for production of variety of biopharmaceuticals. The plants have been engineered to produce many blood products (human serum albumin, cytokines), human being growth hormone, recombinant antibodies, and subunitvaccines.

The usage of transgenic plants for the production of recombinant pharmaceuticals might open new avenues in biotechnology. As plants can exist grown inexpensively with minimal complicated requirements, thus they may have tremendous therapeutic potential. The plants have been engineered to produce more nutrients or better shelf life. The transgenic plants have been created which take genes for insect resistance (Bt cotton, soybean, corn). Now billion acres of state is used for cultivation of genetically engineered crops of cotton wool, corn, and soybean as they have college yield and are pest resistant. However, due to social, upstanding, and biosafety issues, they have received acceptance as well as rejections at many places and health and surroundings-related concerns in many parts of the globe [viii].

Response to Antibiotic Resistance

Antibiotics areone of the broadly used therapeutic molecules produced by certain classes of microorganisms (leaner and fungi) which can be used in diverse clinical situations to eliminate bacteria, improve symptoms, and forestall number of infections. Antibiotics have various other applications apart from clinical aspects. They can be used for the handling of tumors and treatment of meat, in cattles and livestocks, in bones biotechnological work. However, their effectiveness is a matter of concern as bacteria which are continuously exposed to certain antibiotics might become resistant to it due to aggregating of mutations. These days antibiotic-resistant bacteria have increased and some of them accept developed multiple drug resistance. Thus, it has go very hard to initiate therapy in diseases like tuberculosis and leprosy. Biotechnology is solving the urgent and growing problem of antibody resistance. With the aid of bioinformatics—powerful computer programs capable of analyzing billions of bits of genomicsequence information—scientists are groovy the genetic codes of bacteria and discovering "weak spots" vulnerable to attack past compounds identified via loftier-throughput screening. This kind of work led in 2000 to the blessing of Zyvox (linezolid), an antibiotic to reach the marketplace in 35 years.

Lytic bacteriophage viruses that infect and impale bacteria may be another way to counter resistance. Outset used to treat infection in the 1920s, "phage therapy" was largely eclipsed by the evolution of antibiotics. However, researchers in the former Soviet Democracy of Georgia reported that a biodegradable polymer impregnated with bacteriophages and the antibiotic Cipro successfully healed wounds infected with a drug-resistant bacterium.

Example Study

After exposure of strontium-xc, iii Georgian lumberjacks from village Lia had systemic furnishings, and ii of them developed severe local radiation injuries which subsequently became infected with Staphylococcus aureus. Upon hospitalization, the patients were treated with various medications, including antibiotics and topical ointments; however, wound healing was only moderately successful, and their South. aureus infection could not be eliminated. Approximately one calendar month after hospitalization, treatment with PhagoBioDerm (a wound-healing training consisting of a biodegradable polymer impregnated with ciprofloxacin and bacteriophages) was initiated. Purulent drainage stopped inside 2–vii days. Clinical improvement was associated with rapid (7 days) emptying of the etiologic agent, and a strain of S. aureus responsible for infection was resistant to many antibiotics (including ciprofloxacin) but was susceptible to the bacteriophages independent in the PhagoBioDerm preparation [eleven].

The Challenges for the Technology

Gene Therapy

Some biotechapproaches to better health have proven to exist more challenging than others. An example is factor transfer, where the lacking gene is replaced with a ordinarily functioning one. The normal gene is delivered to target tissues in most cases past virus that is genetically contradistinct to render it harmless. The first ex vivo cistron transfer experiment, conducted in 1990 at the National Institutes of Health (NIH), on Ashanti DeSilva who was suffering from severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) helped heave her immune response and successfully corrected an enzyme deficiency. However, treatment was required every few months. However, ix years later on, a major setback occurred in gene therapy trial afterwards the death of 18-year-one-time Jesse Gelsinger suffering from ornithine transcarbamylase (OTC) deficiency due to intense inflammatory responses followed by gene therapy treatment. There were some positive experiences and some setbacks from gene therapy trials leading to stricter safety requirements in clinical trials.

Designer Babies

The fancyterm designer baby was invented by media. Many people in club prefer embryos with improve traits, intellect, and intelligence. They desire to select embryo postal service germline technology. This technique is still in infancy but is capable of creating lot of differences in the order thus requires appropriate guidelines.

Genetically Modified Food

Genetically modifiedcrops harboring genes for insect resistance were grown on billion of acres of country. These crops became very popular due to loftier yield and pest resistance. Notwithstanding, some of the pests gradually developed resistance for a few of these transgenic crops posing resistant pest threat. The other technologies as "traitor" and "terminator" technologies pose serious chance on ingather biodiversity and would impart negative characters in the crop (they were not released due to public outcry).

Pharmacogenomics

Scientists do not believe they will find a single gene for every disease. As a result, they are studyingrelationships between genes and probing populations for variations in the genetic code, called single nucleotide polymorphisms, or SNPs, that may increment one'due south risk for a particular disease or determine one'south response to a given medication. This powerful ability to assign run a risk and response to genetic variations is fueling the movement toward "individualized medicine." The goal is prevention, earlier diagnosis, and more constructive therapy by prescribing interventions that match patients' particular genetic characteristics.

Tissue Engineering

Tissue applied science is 1 of the emerging fields with tremendous potential to supply replacement tissue and organ choice for many diseases. Lot is achieved, lot more than need to exist accomplished.

Ethical Problems

The pursuit of cut-border research "brings usa closer to our ultimate goal of eliminating disability and disease through the best care which modern medicine can provide." Understanding of the genetics of heart affliction and cancer will aid the development of screening tools and interventions that can assist prevent the spread of these devastating disorders into the globe'due south most rapidly developing economies.

Biotechnology is a neutral tool; nevertheless, its capabilities raise troubling upstanding questions. Should prospective parents be immune to "engineer" the physical characteristics of their embryos? Should science tinker with the human being germ line, or would that change in profound and irrevocable ways what it means to exist human?

More immediately, shouldn't researchers apply biotechnology—if they can—to eliminate health disparities amidst racial and indigenous groups? While genetic variation is one of many factors contributing to differences in wellness outcome (others include environment, socioeconomic status, wellness-care admission, stress, and behavior), the growing power to mine DNA databases from diverse populations should enable scientists to parse the roles these and other factors play.

Biotechnology along with supportive health-care infrastructure tin solve complicated health bug. Accessibility to the new screening tests, vaccines, and medications and cultural, economical, and political barriers to change must exist overcome. Research must include more people from disadvantaged groups, which will require overcoming long-held concerns, some of them have had about medical science.

Biotechnology has been a significant force which has improved the quality of lives and has incalculably benefitted man beings. However, applied science does have prospects of doing impairment also due to unanticipated consequences. Each engineering is subjected to ethical cess and requires a different upstanding approach. Obviously the changes are necessary every bit technology can accept major impact on the globe; thus, a righteous approach should be followed. In that location is uncertainty in predicting consequences, as this powerful engineering has potential to manipulate humans themselves. Ethical concerns are even more important every bit the hereafter of humanity can change which require careful attention and consideration. Therefore, wisdom is required to clear our responsibilities toward environment, animals, nature, and ourselves for the coming time to come generations. We need to differentiate what is important technologically rather that what technology tin can do. For an imperative question, that is, whether this can be accomplished, the research must answer "Why should it exist achieved"? Who would it benefit?

Problems Related to Safety

• Equally the new GM crops are entering the market, the issue regarding their consumption, whether they are safe, without any adventure, is ane of the important concerns [2]. Though the results related to safety and usage are well reported (every bit compared to conventional crops), unknown fear from these products makes them non acceptable at many places [20].

• As insect- and pest-resistant varieties are being prepared and used every bit Bt genes in corn and cotton wool crops, there exists a run a risk of development of resistance insect population. Another important factor is that these resistant crops may impairment other species like birds and butterfly.

• The development of more weeds may occur equally cross-pollination might result in production of weeds with herbicide resistance which would be difficult to command.

• The factor transfers might cross the natural species boundary and affect biological variety.

• The judgment of their usage would depend upon the clear understanding of risks associated with safety of these products in determining the touch on of these on environment, other crops, and other animal species.

Future of the Engineering

With the understanding of science, we should sympathise that genetic transfers have been occurring in animals and plant systems; thus, the take chances of the biotechnology-derived products is similar as conventional crops [12].

The biotechnology products would exist acceptable to many if they are beneficial and safe. People are willing to buy crops complimentary of pesticides and insecticides. Present people are also accepting crops grown without the usage of chemical fertilizers or pesticides, which are high in nutritive values.

The labeling of the product is besides an ethical issue as some believe that labeling whatever product as biotechnology production might be taken by consumer as warning signs; however, others believe that labeling should be washed every bit consumer has every right to know what he is consuming [9]. The products may be acceptable if consumers can accept the food derived from biotechnology weighing all pros and cons and, if the price is right, has more nutritive values, is practiced in taste, and is condom to eat [10].

Biotechnology is at the crossroads in terms of fears and thus public acceptance [15]. Surprisingly the therapeutic products are all accepted and find major place in biopharmaceutical industry, just food crops are yet facing bug in worldwide acceptance. The future of the world food supply depends upon how well scientists, government, and the food manufacture are able to communicate with consumers nearly the benefits and condom of the engineering [13, 16]. Several major initiatives are under way to strengthen the regulatory procedure and to communicate more than effectively with consumers by conducting educational programs [eighteen, 23].

Chapter End Summary

• The advantages of biotechnology are and then broad that it is finding its place in virtually every industry. Information technology has applications in areas as diverse as pharmaceuticals, diagnostics, textiles, aquaculture, forestry, chemicals, household products, environmental cleanup, food processing, and forensics to proper noun a few.

• Biotechnology is enabling these industries to make new or better products, oftentimes with greater speed, efficiency, and flexibility.

• With the applications of recombinant Deoxyribonucleic acid applied science, more safer and therapeutic drugs are produced. These recombinant products do not elicit unwanted immunological response which is observed when the product is obtained from other live or dead sources. Many of these therapeutics are approved for human usage, and many of them are in the phase of development.

• Immunological and DNA-based techniques like PCR (polymerase concatenation reaction) are used for early diagnosis of disorders. PCR and NAAT with microarray can be utilized for the diagnosis of many diseases, and information technology tin can detect mutations in gene.

• The technology holds hope through stem jail cell inquiry and factor therapy and holds applications in forensic medicine.

• The technique may exist helpful in developing useful and beneficial plants. It overcomes the limitations of traditional plant breeding. The techniques of institute tissue civilisation, transgenics, and marker-assisted selections are largely used for selecting ameliorate yielding varieties and imparting quality traits in plants.

• It is besides helpful in maintaining environment past bioremediation and other handling. The areas where information technology finds applications are:

  • Food industries. Production of single-jail cell poly peptide, spirulina, enzymes, and solid-state fermentations

  • Increase and comeback of agricultural product

  • Production of therapeutic pharmaceuticals

  • Production of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies

  • Cultivation of virus for vaccine production

Multiple Choice Questions

1. Which abiotic stress can be tolerated past genetically modified crops?

   1. Insects

   2. Pests

   3. Drought

   4. All of the above

2. The golden rice is a crop having loftier nutritive value in:

   1. Vitamin A

   2. Vitamin B

   3. Vitamin C

   4. Vitamin D and calcium

3. Bt toxin gene which encodes cry protein is:

   1. bccryI

   2. dbcryII

   3. cryIAc

   4. cryIdb

4. The start recombinant production to accomplish the market was:

   1. Growth hormone

   2. Tissue plasminogen activator

   3. Factor Viii

   4. Insulin

5. Biotechnology deals with:

   1. Genetically modifying organism

   2. Production of therapeutics

   3. Production of ameliorate diagnosis

   4. All of the above

6. Green revolution is:

   1. Increase in yield of crops

   2. Improved crop varieties

   3. Bottom fertilizers and agrochemicals

   4. All of these

7. Insecticidal protein weep does non kill bacillus because:

   1. It is resistant to it.

   2. The toxin is enclosed in vesicle.

   3. The toxin is present in inactive form.

   4. None of these.

8. DNA defects may be solved by:

   1. Factor therapy

   2. Replacement protein therapy

   3. Stem cell therapy

   4. All of these

9. The use of insect resistant crop would be:

   1. The productivity would improve.

   2. The usage of chemic amanuensis would exist reduced.

   3. The environment and crop would be insecticide gratis.

   4. All of the in a higher place.

10. Bioremediation can be helpful in:

    1. Detoxifying waste matter

    2. Burying waste material

    3. Called-for waste material material

    4. None of these

11. Which of the following statements are true?

    (1) In all the cells of our trunk, all the genes are active.

    (two) In different cells of our body, unlike genes are active.

    (iii) Gene expression is spatially and temporally regulated.

    1. All 1, two, and 3 are correct.

    2. 1 and 2 are right.

    3. 1 and 3 are correct.

    4. 2 and 3 are right.

12. In a classic experiment, Dr. Edward Jenner demonstrated that:

    1. Inoculation with monoclonal antibody was able to forbid small pox.

    2. Inoculation with pus from sores due to cowpox could preclude small pox.

    3. Attenuated vaccine was able to forestall small pox.

    4. None of the above.

Answers

• one. (c); 2. (a); 3. (c); 4. (d); five. (d); 6. (d); 7. (c); viii. (a); 9. (d); 10. (a); xi. (d); 12. (b)

Review Questions

• Q1. What are cry proteins? What is their importance?

• Q2. Give some applications of biotechnology in agriculture.

• Q3. What is your stance near labeling of biotechnology-based food production as rDNA technology derived product?

• Q4. What are applications of biotechnology in maintaining environment?

• Q5. What is medical biotechnology?

• Q6. What are the challenges faced past biotechnology industry?

• Q7. What do you remember about GM crops?

References

1. Behera et al. (2015) Scope of algae every bit third generation biofuels. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2: doi:10.3389/fbioe.2014.00090 [PMC gratuitous article] [PubMed]

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4. Definition of Biotechnology-Economic Research Service at United States Department of Agronomics

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12. Myths and facts almost food biotechnology, food insight, September/Oct 1999, pp. 2–3

14. New York Times Editorial, titled: "Food….people who would have the most to lose", 19 Nov 1999

19. Thieman WJ, Palladino MA (2004) Introduction to biotechnology, 2d edn. Pearson Publications, Usa

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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7119977/

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